The Toyota Prius is the world's top selling hybrid car, with cumulative global sales of 1.6 million units by early 2010.[1]
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combin
es a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle, or better performance. A variety of types of HEV exist, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) also exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into battery-replenishing electric energy, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car, as an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than a pure fossil-fuel vehicle, and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.
Ferdinand Porsche in 1900 developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world.[2] The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999.[3] While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future.[4][5] Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by Toyota reached 1.0 million vehicles by May 31, 2007, and the 2.0 million mark was reached by August 31, 2009, with hybrids sold in 50 countries.[6][7] Worldwide sales are led by the Prius, with cumulative sales of 1.6 million by early 2010.[1][8] The global market leader is the United States with 1.6 million hybrids registered by December 2009, of which 814,173 are Toyota Prius,[9] and California is the biggest American market.[8][10]
Contents
1 Terminology
1.1 Types of powertrain
1.2 Types by degree of hybridization
1.3 Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
2 History
2.1 Early days
2.2 Predecessors of current technology
2.3 Modern hybrids
2.4 Latest developments
3 Sales and rankings
3.1 U.S. market
3.2 Japanese market
4 Technology
4.1 Engines and fuel sources
4.1.1 Fossil fuels
4.1.2 Biofuels
4.2 Electric machines
4.3 Design considerations
4.4 Conversion kits
5 Environmental impact
5.1 Fuel consumption
5.2 Noise
5.3 Pollution
6 Vehicle types
6.1 Motorcycles
6.2 Automobiles and light trucks
6.3 Taxis
6.4 Buses
6.5 Trucks
6.6 Military vehicles
6.7 Locomotives
6.8 Marine and other aquatic
7 Hybrid Premium and Showroom Cost Parity
8 Raw materials shortage
9 Legislation and incentives
9.1 Canada
9.2 Japan
9.3 Jordan
9.4 Netherlands
9.5 New Zealand
9.6 Republic of Ireland
9.7 Sweden
9.8 United Kingdom
9.9 United States
9.9.1 Federal
9.9.2 States and local
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
13.1 News
//
Terminology
Types of powertrain
Main article: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is supplied to the drivetrain:
The Toyota Highlander Hybrid has a series-parallel drivetrain.
In parallel hybrids, the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric motor are both connected to the mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels. Honda's Insight, Civic, and Accord hybrids are examples of production parallel hybrids.[11] Usually parallel hybrids can use a smaller battery pack as they rely more on regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine can also act a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel hybrids are more efficient for highway driving than in urban stop-and-go conditions.[11]
In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drivetrain, and the ICE works as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. The battery pack can recharged from regenerative braking or from the ICE. Series hybrids usually have a smaller combustion engine but a larger battery pack as compared to parallel hybrids, which makes them more expensive than parallels. This configuration makes series hybrids more efficient in city driving.[11] The Chevrolet Volt is a series plug-in hybrid, although GM prefers to describe the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered ICE as a generator and therefore dubbed an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle"[12] or E-REV.[13][12][14]
Series-parallel hybrids have the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because they can operate as a series hybrid at lower speeds and as parallel at high speeds, but their cost is higher than a pure parallel.[11] Hybrid powertrains currently used by Ford, General Motors,Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota, which some refer to as “series-parallel” can operate in both series and parallel mode at the same time.[11][15]
Types by degree of hybridization
Further information: Mild hybrid
The Saturn Vue Green Line is a mild hybrid.
The 2005-06 Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid is a mild hybrid that uses the electric motor mainly to power the accessories.
The BMW Concept 7 Series ActiveHybrid is a mild hybrid with an electric motor designed to increase power and performance.
Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both.[16] Ford's hybrid system, Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive and General Motors/Chrysler's Two-Mode Hybrid technologies are full hybrid systems.[17] The Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path that allows more flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity.
Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that can not drive on electricity alone because the electric motor does not have enough power to propel the vehicle on its own.[16][17] Mild hybrids only include some of the features found in hybrid technology, and usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle.[16][17] A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the gasoline engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hybrids have smaller batteries and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows manufacturers to reduce cost and weight. [17]
Honda's early hybrids including the first generation Insight used this design,[17] leveraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel the vehicle solely on electric power during medium speed cruising. Another example is the 2005-2007 Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid, a full-size pickup truck.[17] Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on the Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand and using regenerative braking. General Motors has also used its mild BAS Hybrid technology in other models such as the Saturn Vue Green Line, the Saturn Aura Greenline and the Mailbu Hybrid.[17]
Power assist hybrids use the ICE for primary power, with a torque-boosting electric motor also connected to a largely conventional powertrain. The electric motor, mounted between the engine and transmission, is essentially a very large starter motor, which operates not only when the engine needs to be turned over, but also when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power. The electric motor may also be used to re-start the combustion engine, deriving the same benefits from shutting down the main engine at idle, while the enhanced battery system is used to power accessories.
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid able to run in all-electric mode up to 40 miles.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric powersource. A PHEV shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, also having a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much larger all-electric range as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids, and also eliminate the "range anxiety" associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a back up when the batteries are depleted.[18][16][19]
Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM PHEV-62 (PHEV-100km) hatchback to the Chinese fleet market on December 15, 2008, for 149,800 yuan (US $22,000).[20][21] General Motors expects to launch the 2011 Chevrolet Volt series plug-in by November 2010.[22][23]
History
Further information: History of plug-in hybrids
Early days
The Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid was the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile.
In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche developed the Mixte,[2][24] a 4WD series-hybrid version of "System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage previously appeared in 1900 Paris World Fair. The Mixte included a pair of generators driven by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines to extend operating range and it could could travel nearly 40 miles on battery alone and it was presented in the Paris Auto Show in 1901.[2][25][26] The Mixte broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The Mixte used a gasoline engine powering a generator, which in turn powered electric hub motors, with a small battery pack for reliability. It had a top speed of 50 km/h and a power of 5.22 kW during 20 minutes.
George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902.[27] In 1905, H. Piper filed a US patent application for a hybrid vehicle.[28] The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.[29]
A Canadian company produced a hybrid car for sale in 1915.[27] The first gasoline-electric hybrid car was released by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago in 1917. The hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service.
In 1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car went downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations of the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxyhydrogen gas. An account of the car and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koestler's autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a contemporaneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond the prototype was reported.
Predecessors of current technology
A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electric car). Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid".[30] Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drivetrain (with a 16 kilowatts (21 hp) electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup.[31]
The regenerative braking system, the core design concept of most production HEVs, was developed by electrical engineer David Arthurs around 1978, using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficiency, and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp).
In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (the Audi C3 100 Avant Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. This car had a 9.4 kilowatts (12.8 PS; 12.6 bhp) Siemens electric motor which drove the rear roadwheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front roadwheels were powered by a 2.3 litre five-cylinder petrol engine with an output of 100 kilowatts (136 PS; 134 bhp). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country, and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.
Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the Audi 100 Duo - likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again, this featured an electric motor, a 21.3 kilowatts (29.0 PS; 28.6 bhp) three-phase machine, driving the rear roadwheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the Torsen centre differential from the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0 litre four-cylinder engine.[citation needed]
The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993, that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle.[32] The United States National Research Council (USNRC) cited automakers' moves to produce HEVs as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the "Big Three" would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.[33] The program was replaced by the hydrogen-focused FreedomCAR initiative by the George W. Bush administration in 2001,[34] an initiative to fund research too risky for the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of developing effectively carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.
1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed to finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year.
Modern hybrids
See also: List of hybrid vehicles
1997 Toyota Prius (first generation).
2000 Honda Insight (first generation).
2010 Honda Insight (second generation).
The 2010 Ford Fusion Hybrid was launched in the U.S. in March 2009.[35]
Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched in Japan in 1997, and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and Japan.[3] The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the world in 2000.[36] The first generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economy of 52 miles per US gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg-imp) in the city and 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg-imp) in highway driving. The two-door first generation Insight was estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg-imp) miles per gallon in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 82 mpg-imp) on the highway.[3]
The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997, 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwide Prius sales reached the 1 million mark in April 2008.[36] By early 2010, the Prius global cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units.[1][8] Toyota launched a second generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009.[37] The 2010 Prius has an estimated U.S. EPA combined fuel economy cycle of 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp).[37]
The Audi Duo III was introduced in 1997, based on the Audi B5 A4 Avant, and was the only Duo to ever make it into series production.[2] The Duo III used the 1.9 litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine, which was coupled with an 21 kilowatts (29 PS; 28 bhp) electric motor. Unfortunately due to low demand for this hybrid because of its high price, only about sixty Audi Duos were produced. Until the release of the Audi Q7 Hybrid in 2008, the Duo was the only European hybrid ever put into production.[2][38]
The Honda Civic Hybrid was introduced in February 2002 as a 2003 model, based on the seventh generation Civic.[39] The 2003 Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, but delivers 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), a 40 percent increase compared to a conventional Civic LX sedan.[39] Along with the conventional Civic, it received styling update for 2004. The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius (second generation) improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight first generation stopped being produced after 2006 and has a devoted base of owners. A second generation Insight was launched in 2010. In 2004, Honda also released a hybrid version of the Accord but discontinued it in 2007 citing disappointing sales.[40]
The Ford Escape Hybrid, the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents[citation needed] from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built.[citation needed] In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota.[citation needed] Toyota announced calendar year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the Toyota Highlander Hybrid and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a transfer case.
In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a mild parallel hybrids in the form of the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line which utilized GM's Belted Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) System combined with a 2.4 litre L4 engine and a FWD automatic transmission. The same hybrid powertrain was also used to power the 2008 Saturn Aura Greenline and Mailbu Hybrid models. As of December 2009, only the BAS equipped Malibu is still in (limited) production.
In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan, the GS 450h, with a power output of 335 bhp.[41] The 2007 Camry Hybrid became available in Summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan launched the Altima Hybrid with technology licensed by Toyota in 2007.[42]
Commencing in the fall of 2007 General Motors began to market their 2008 Two-Mode Hybrid models of their GMT900 based Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon SUVs, closely followed by the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid[43] version.[44] For the 2009 model year, General Motors released the same technology in their half-ton pickup truck models, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado[45] and GMC Sierra[46] Two-Mode Hybrid models.
The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show in November 2008,[47]and was launched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together with the second generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.[35]
Latest developments
The 2010 Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid is the first HEV to use lithium ion batteries.
The 2011 Honda CR-Z hybrid was launched in Japan in February 2010.[48]
The Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid was unveiled at the 2009 Seoul Motor Show, and sales began in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid vehicle to be powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.[49][50] The Elantra LPI Hybrid delivers a fuel economy rating of 41.9 miles per US gallon (5.61 L/100 km; 50.3 mpg-imp) and CO2 emissions of 99 g/km to qualify as a Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV).[49] Hyundai has scheduled the launch of the 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid by the end of 2010.[51][52]
The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid was unveiled in the 2009 Chicago Auto Show,[53] and sales began in the U.S. in October 2009.[54][55] The S400 BlueHybrid is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid car to adopt a lithium ion battery.[53][56] The hybrid technology in the S400 was co-developed by Daimler AG and BMW.[17][53] The same hybrid technology is being used in the BMW 7 Series ActiveHybrid, expected to go on sales in the U.S. and Europe by mid 2010.[57] In December 2009 BMW began sales of its full hybrid BMW ActiveHybrid X6, while Daimler launched the Mercedes-Benz ML450 Hybrid by lease only.[58][59]
Sales of the 2011 Honda CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.[48] The CR-Z is scheduled to be launched in the European and North American markets by mid 2010.[60] Honda has also scheduled the launch of the 2011 Honda Fit Hybrid by the end of 2010.[61][62]
Toyota announced plans to add hybrid drivetrains to ten new hybrid models between 2009 and 2012 and expects to sell worldwide one million hybrids per year early in this decade.[63][64] Two of Toyota's latest concept cars are the Prius Custom Plus Concept and the Toyota FT-CH (Future Toyota Compact Hybrid). The Prius Custom Plus is a modification of the Toyota Prius and shown at the 2010 Tokyo Auto Salon.[65] The Custom Plus differs from the Prius by its aggressive body kit and new wheels. The Toyota FT-CH was first shown at the 2010 North American International Auto Show.[66] Compared to the Toyota Prius, the FT-CH is 22 inches shorter in overall length and less than an inch in overall width, and it is lighter in weight and more fuel efficient than the Prius. This concept is targeting a lower price range than the Prius line-up.[67]
Volkswagen announced at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show the launch of the 2012 Touareg Hybrid, scheduled for 2011.[68][69] VW also announced plans to introduce diesel-electric hybrid versions of its most popular models in 2012, beginning with the new Jetta, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013 together with hybrid versions of the Passat.[70][71]
Other gasoline-electric hybrids already schedule for commercial sales are the 2011 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid[72] and the Porshe Cayenne Hybrid,[73] both for late 2010, and the Lexus CT 200h in 2011.[73]
Sales and rankings
The Toyota hybrids combined with Lexus reached 1 million hybrids sold in the US by February 2009,[63] and worldwide sales of hybrids by both carmakers reached totaled over 2 million vehicles by August 2009.[7] As a top seller in the U.S. and Japanese markets, the Toyota Prius reached cumulative sales of 1.6 million Prius sold worldwide in 2009.[1][8]
The Toyota Prius is the top selling hybrid in the U.S. and Japan.
The Honda Civic Hybrid is the second most sold hybrid in the U.S.
The Ford Escape Hybrid is the top selling hybrid in the U.S. by an American carmaker.
Worldwide there were more than 2.5 million hybrid electric vehicles by 2009, led by the United States with 1.6 million units,[9] followed by Japan (more than 640 thousand)[7][74] and Europe (more than 237 thousand).[7][74] By December 2009, the top seller in the U.S. was the Toyota Prius, with cumulative sales of 814,173 units, followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, with 197,177 vehicles, and the Toyota Camry Hybrid, with 154,977 units. The top seller in the U.S. by an American manufacturer is the Ford Escape Hybrid, with cumulative sales of 95,285 vehicles by December 2009, followed by the Fusion Hybrid, with sales of 15,554 u
nits in just nine months.[9]
Worldwide, Toyota Motor Company is the leader with more than 2 million hybrids sold by August 2009,[6][7] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd.with more than 300 thousand hybrids sold by January 2009,[74] and Ford Motor Corporation with more than 122 thousand hybrids sold by December 2009.[9][75]
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combin
es a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle, or better performance. A variety of types of HEV exist, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) also exist.Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into battery-replenishing electric energy, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car, as an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than a pure fossil-fuel vehicle, and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.
Ferdinand Porsche in 1900 developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world.[2] The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999.[3] While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future.[4][5] Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by Toyota reached 1.0 million vehicles by May 31, 2007, and the 2.0 million mark was reached by August 31, 2009, with hybrids sold in 50 countries.[6][7] Worldwide sales are led by the Prius, with cumulative sales of 1.6 million by early 2010.[1][8] The global market leader is the United States with 1.6 million hybrids registered by December 2009, of which 814,173 are Toyota Prius,[9] and California is the biggest American market.[8][10]
Contents
1 Terminology
1.1 Types of powertrain
1.2 Types by degree of hybridization
1.3 Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
2 History
2.1 Early days
2.2 Predecessors of current technology
2.3 Modern hybrids
2.4 Latest developments
3 Sales and rankings
3.1 U.S. market
3.2 Japanese market
4 Technology
4.1 Engines and fuel sources
4.1.1 Fossil fuels
4.1.2 Biofuels
4.2 Electric machines
4.3 Design considerations
4.4 Conversion kits
5 Environmental impact
5.1 Fuel consumption
5.2 Noise
5.3 Pollution
6 Vehicle types
6.1 Motorcycles
6.2 Automobiles and light trucks
6.3 Taxis
6.4 Buses
6.5 Trucks
6.6 Military vehicles
6.7 Locomotives
6.8 Marine and other aquatic
7 Hybrid Premium and Showroom Cost Parity
8 Raw materials shortage
9 Legislation and incentives
9.1 Canada
9.2 Japan
9.3 Jordan
9.4 Netherlands
9.5 New Zealand
9.6 Republic of Ireland
9.7 Sweden
9.8 United Kingdom
9.9 United States
9.9.1 Federal
9.9.2 States and local
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
13.1 News
//
Terminology
Types of powertrain
Main article: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is supplied to the drivetrain:
The Toyota Highlander Hybrid has a series-parallel drivetrain.
In parallel hybrids, the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electric motor are both connected to the mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels. Honda's Insight, Civic, and Accord hybrids are examples of production parallel hybrids.[11] Usually parallel hybrids can use a smaller battery pack as they rely more on regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine can also act a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel hybrids are more efficient for highway driving than in urban stop-and-go conditions.[11]
In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drivetrain, and the ICE works as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. The battery pack can recharged from regenerative braking or from the ICE. Series hybrids usually have a smaller combustion engine but a larger battery pack as compared to parallel hybrids, which makes them more expensive than parallels. This configuration makes series hybrids more efficient in city driving.[11] The Chevrolet Volt is a series plug-in hybrid, although GM prefers to describe the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered ICE as a generator and therefore dubbed an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle"[12] or E-REV.[13][12][14]
Series-parallel hybrids have the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because they can operate as a series hybrid at lower speeds and as parallel at high speeds, but their cost is higher than a pure parallel.[11] Hybrid powertrains currently used by Ford, General Motors,Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota, which some refer to as “series-parallel” can operate in both series and parallel mode at the same time.[11][15]
Types by degree of hybridization
Further information: Mild hybrid
The Saturn Vue Green Line is a mild hybrid.
The 2005-06 Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid is a mild hybrid that uses the electric motor mainly to power the accessories.
The BMW Concept 7 Series ActiveHybrid is a mild hybrid with an electric motor designed to increase power and performance.Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both.[16] Ford's hybrid system, Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive and General Motors/Chrysler's Two-Mode Hybrid technologies are full hybrid systems.[17] The Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path that allows more flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity.
Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that can not drive on electricity alone because the electric motor does not have enough power to propel the vehicle on its own.[16][17] Mild hybrids only include some of the features found in hybrid technology, and usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle.[16][17] A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the gasoline engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hybrids have smaller batteries and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows manufacturers to reduce cost and weight. [17]
Honda's early hybrids including the first generation Insight used this design,[17] leveraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel the vehicle solely on electric power during medium speed cruising. Another example is the 2005-2007 Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid, a full-size pickup truck.[17] Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on the Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand and using regenerative braking. General Motors has also used its mild BAS Hybrid technology in other models such as the Saturn Vue Green Line, the Saturn Aura Greenline and the Mailbu Hybrid.[17]
Power assist hybrids use the ICE for primary power, with a torque-boosting electric motor also connected to a largely conventional powertrain. The electric motor, mounted between the engine and transmission, is essentially a very large starter motor, which operates not only when the engine needs to be turned over, but also when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power. The electric motor may also be used to re-start the combustion engine, deriving the same benefits from shutting down the main engine at idle, while the enhanced battery system is used to power accessories.
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid able to run in all-electric mode up to 40 miles.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric powersource. A PHEV shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, also having a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much larger all-electric range as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids, and also eliminate the "range anxiety" associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a back up when the batteries are depleted.[18][16][19]
Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM PHEV-62 (PHEV-100km) hatchback to the Chinese fleet market on December 15, 2008, for 149,800 yuan (US $22,000).[20][21] General Motors expects to launch the 2011 Chevrolet Volt series plug-in by November 2010.[22][23]
History
Further information: History of plug-in hybrids
Early days
The Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid was the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile.
In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche developed the Mixte,[2][24] a 4WD series-hybrid version of "System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage previously appeared in 1900 Paris World Fair. The Mixte included a pair of generators driven by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines to extend operating range and it could could travel nearly 40 miles on battery alone and it was presented in the Paris Auto Show in 1901.[2][25][26] The Mixte broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The Mixte used a gasoline engine powering a generator, which in turn powered electric hub motors, with a small battery pack for reliability. It had a top speed of 50 km/h and a power of 5.22 kW during 20 minutes.
George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902.[27] In 1905, H. Piper filed a US patent application for a hybrid vehicle.[28] The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.[29]
A Canadian company produced a hybrid car for sale in 1915.[27] The first gasoline-electric hybrid car was released by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago in 1917. The hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service.
In 1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car went downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations of the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxyhydrogen gas. An account of the car and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koestler's autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a contemporaneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond the prototype was reported.
Predecessors of current technology
A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electric car). Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid".[30] Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drivetrain (with a 16 kilowatts (21 hp) electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup.[31]
The regenerative braking system, the core design concept of most production HEVs, was developed by electrical engineer David Arthurs around 1978, using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficiency, and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp).
In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (the Audi C3 100 Avant Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. This car had a 9.4 kilowatts (12.8 PS; 12.6 bhp) Siemens electric motor which drove the rear roadwheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front roadwheels were powered by a 2.3 litre five-cylinder petrol engine with an output of 100 kilowatts (136 PS; 134 bhp). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country, and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.
Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the Audi 100 Duo - likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again, this featured an electric motor, a 21.3 kilowatts (29.0 PS; 28.6 bhp) three-phase machine, driving the rear roadwheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the Torsen centre differential from the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0 litre four-cylinder engine.[citation needed]
The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993, that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle.[32] The United States National Research Council (USNRC) cited automakers' moves to produce HEVs as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the "Big Three" would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.[33] The program was replaced by the hydrogen-focused FreedomCAR initiative by the George W. Bush administration in 2001,[34] an initiative to fund research too risky for the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of developing effectively carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.
1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed to finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year.
Modern hybrids
See also: List of hybrid vehicles
1997 Toyota Prius (first generation).
2000 Honda Insight (first generation).
2010 Honda Insight (second generation).
The 2010 Ford Fusion Hybrid was launched in the U.S. in March 2009.[35]Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched in Japan in 1997, and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and Japan.[3] The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the world in 2000.[36] The first generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economy of 52 miles per US gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg-imp) in the city and 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg-imp) in highway driving. The two-door first generation Insight was estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg-imp) miles per gallon in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 82 mpg-imp) on the highway.[3]
The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997, 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwide Prius sales reached the 1 million mark in April 2008.[36] By early 2010, the Prius global cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units.[1][8] Toyota launched a second generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009.[37] The 2010 Prius has an estimated U.S. EPA combined fuel economy cycle of 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp).[37]
The Audi Duo III was introduced in 1997, based on the Audi B5 A4 Avant, and was the only Duo to ever make it into series production.[2] The Duo III used the 1.9 litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine, which was coupled with an 21 kilowatts (29 PS; 28 bhp) electric motor. Unfortunately due to low demand for this hybrid because of its high price, only about sixty Audi Duos were produced. Until the release of the Audi Q7 Hybrid in 2008, the Duo was the only European hybrid ever put into production.[2][38]
The Honda Civic Hybrid was introduced in February 2002 as a 2003 model, based on the seventh generation Civic.[39] The 2003 Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, but delivers 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), a 40 percent increase compared to a conventional Civic LX sedan.[39] Along with the conventional Civic, it received styling update for 2004. The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius (second generation) improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight first generation stopped being produced after 2006 and has a devoted base of owners. A second generation Insight was launched in 2010. In 2004, Honda also released a hybrid version of the Accord but discontinued it in 2007 citing disappointing sales.[40]
The Ford Escape Hybrid, the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents[citation needed] from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built.[citation needed] In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota.[citation needed] Toyota announced calendar year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the Toyota Highlander Hybrid and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a transfer case.
In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a mild parallel hybrids in the form of the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line which utilized GM's Belted Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) System combined with a 2.4 litre L4 engine and a FWD automatic transmission. The same hybrid powertrain was also used to power the 2008 Saturn Aura Greenline and Mailbu Hybrid models. As of December 2009, only the BAS equipped Malibu is still in (limited) production.
In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan, the GS 450h, with a power output of 335 bhp.[41] The 2007 Camry Hybrid became available in Summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan launched the Altima Hybrid with technology licensed by Toyota in 2007.[42]
Commencing in the fall of 2007 General Motors began to market their 2008 Two-Mode Hybrid models of their GMT900 based Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon SUVs, closely followed by the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid[43] version.[44] For the 2009 model year, General Motors released the same technology in their half-ton pickup truck models, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado[45] and GMC Sierra[46] Two-Mode Hybrid models.
The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show in November 2008,[47]and was launched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together with the second generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.[35]
Latest developments
The 2010 Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid is the first HEV to use lithium ion batteries.
The 2011 Honda CR-Z hybrid was launched in Japan in February 2010.[48]The Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid was unveiled at the 2009 Seoul Motor Show, and sales began in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid vehicle to be powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.[49][50] The Elantra LPI Hybrid delivers a fuel economy rating of 41.9 miles per US gallon (5.61 L/100 km; 50.3 mpg-imp) and CO2 emissions of 99 g/km to qualify as a Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV).[49] Hyundai has scheduled the launch of the 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid by the end of 2010.[51][52]
The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid was unveiled in the 2009 Chicago Auto Show,[53] and sales began in the U.S. in October 2009.[54][55] The S400 BlueHybrid is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid car to adopt a lithium ion battery.[53][56] The hybrid technology in the S400 was co-developed by Daimler AG and BMW.[17][53] The same hybrid technology is being used in the BMW 7 Series ActiveHybrid, expected to go on sales in the U.S. and Europe by mid 2010.[57] In December 2009 BMW began sales of its full hybrid BMW ActiveHybrid X6, while Daimler launched the Mercedes-Benz ML450 Hybrid by lease only.[58][59]
Sales of the 2011 Honda CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.[48] The CR-Z is scheduled to be launched in the European and North American markets by mid 2010.[60] Honda has also scheduled the launch of the 2011 Honda Fit Hybrid by the end of 2010.[61][62]
Toyota announced plans to add hybrid drivetrains to ten new hybrid models between 2009 and 2012 and expects to sell worldwide one million hybrids per year early in this decade.[63][64] Two of Toyota's latest concept cars are the Prius Custom Plus Concept and the Toyota FT-CH (Future Toyota Compact Hybrid). The Prius Custom Plus is a modification of the Toyota Prius and shown at the 2010 Tokyo Auto Salon.[65] The Custom Plus differs from the Prius by its aggressive body kit and new wheels. The Toyota FT-CH was first shown at the 2010 North American International Auto Show.[66] Compared to the Toyota Prius, the FT-CH is 22 inches shorter in overall length and less than an inch in overall width, and it is lighter in weight and more fuel efficient than the Prius. This concept is targeting a lower price range than the Prius line-up.[67]
Volkswagen announced at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show the launch of the 2012 Touareg Hybrid, scheduled for 2011.[68][69] VW also announced plans to introduce diesel-electric hybrid versions of its most popular models in 2012, beginning with the new Jetta, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013 together with hybrid versions of the Passat.[70][71]
Other gasoline-electric hybrids already schedule for commercial sales are the 2011 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid[72] and the Porshe Cayenne Hybrid,[73] both for late 2010, and the Lexus CT 200h in 2011.[73]
Sales and rankings
The Toyota hybrids combined with Lexus reached 1 million hybrids sold in the US by February 2009,[63] and worldwide sales of hybrids by both carmakers reached totaled over 2 million vehicles by August 2009.[7] As a top seller in the U.S. and Japanese markets, the Toyota Prius reached cumulative sales of 1.6 million Prius sold worldwide in 2009.[1][8]The Toyota Prius is the top selling hybrid in the U.S. and Japan.
The Honda Civic Hybrid is the second most sold hybrid in the U.S.
The Ford Escape Hybrid is the top selling hybrid in the U.S. by an American carmaker.Worldwide there were more than 2.5 million hybrid electric vehicles by 2009, led by the United States with 1.6 million units,[9] followed by Japan (more than 640 thousand)[7][74] and Europe (more than 237 thousand).[7][74] By December 2009, the top seller in the U.S. was the Toyota Prius, with cumulative sales of 814,173 units, followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, with 197,177 vehicles, and the Toyota Camry Hybrid, with 154,977 units. The top seller in the U.S. by an American manufacturer is the Ford Escape Hybrid, with cumulative sales of 95,285 vehicles by December 2009, followed by the Fusion Hybrid, with sales of 15,554 u
nits in just nine months.[9]Worldwide, Toyota Motor Company is the leader with more than 2 million hybrids sold by August 2009,[6][7] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd.with more than 300 thousand hybrids sold by January 2009,[74] and Ford Motor Corporation with more than 122 thousand hybrids sold by December 2009.[9][75]
Electronic Stability Control ( ESC )
Electronic stability control (ESC) is a computerized technology that improves the safety of a vehicle's stability by detecting and minimizing skids. When ESC detects loss of steering control, ESC automatically applies the brakes to help "steer" the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is automatically applied to individual wheels, such as the outer front wheel to counter oversteer, or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce engine power until control is regained. Electronic stability control does not improve a vehicle's cornering performance; rather it helps to minimize a loss of control. According to the IIHS and NHTSA one-third of fatal accidents could be prevented by the technology.[1][2]
Contents
1 History
2 Introduction
3 Operation
4 Effectiveness
5 Components and design
6 Availability and cost
7 Future
8 Regulation
9 Product names
10 System manufacturers
11 References
12 External links
Contents
1 History
2 Introduction
3 Operation
4 Effectiveness
5 Components and design
6 Availability and cost
7 Future
8 Regulation
9 Product names
10 System manufacturers
11 References
12 External links
In 1987, the earliest innovators of ESC, Mercedes-Benz and BMW also introduced their first traction control systems. Traction control works by applying individual wheel braking and throttle to keep traction while accelerating but unlike ESC it is not designed to aid in steering.
In 1990, Mitsubishi released the Diamante (Sigma) in Japan. It featured a new electronically controlled active trace & traction control system (the first integration of these two systems in the world) that Mitsubishi developed. Simply named TCL in 1990, the system has since evolved into Mitsubishi's modern Active Skid and Traction Control (ASTC) system or ESC. Developed to help the driver maintain the intended line through a corner; an onboard computer monitored several vehicle operating parameters through various sensors. When too much throttle has been used when taking a curve, engine output and braking are automatically regulated to ensure the proper line through a curve and to provide the proper amount of traction under various road surface conditions. While conventional traction control systems at the time featured only a slip control function, Mitsubishi's newly developed TCL system had a preventive (active) safety function which improved the course tracing performance by automatically adjusting the traction force (called "trace control") thereby restraining the development of excessive lateral acceleration while turning. Although not a ‘true’ modern stability control system, trace control monitors steering angle, throttle position and individual wheel speeds although there is no yaw input. The TCL system's standard wheel slip control function enables better traction on slippery surfaces or during cornering. In addition to the TCL system's individual effect, it also works together with Diamante's electronic controlled suspension and four-wheel steering that Mitsubishi had equipped to improve total handling and performance.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]
BMW, working with Robert Bosch GmbH and Continental Automotive Systems, developed a system to reduce engine torque to prevent loss of control and applied it to the entire BMW model line for 1992. From 1987 to 1992, Mercedes-Benz and Robert Bosch GmbH co-developed a system called Elektronisches Stabilitätsprogramm (Ger. "Electronic Stability Programme" trademarked as ESP) a lateral slippage control system, the electronic stability control (ESC).
Introduction
In 1995, automobile manufacturers introduced electronic stability control systems. Mercedes-Benz supplied by Bosch was the earliest with their W140 S-Class model. That same year BMW, supplied by Bosch and ITT Automotive (later Continental) and Volvo[citation needed] began offering ESC on some of their models while Toyota's own Vehicle Stability Control system (also in 2004, a preventive system called VDIM) appeared on the Crown Majesta.[11] Meanwhile others investigated and developed their own systems.
During a moose test (swerving to avoid an obstacle) which became famous in Germany as "the Elk test" the Swedish journalist Robert Collin of Teknikens Värld (World of Technology) during October 1997[12] rolled a Mercedes A-Class (without ESC) at 37 km/h. Because Mercedes-Benz promotes a reputation for safety, they recalled and retrofitted 130,000 A-Class cars with ESC. This produced a significant reduction in crashes and the number of vehicles with ESC rose. Today virtually all premium brands have made ESC standard on all vehicles, and the number of models with ESC continues to increase.[13] Ford and Toyota have announced that all their North American vehicles will be equipped with ESC standard by the end of 2009 (Toyota SUVs standard in 2004, Toyota has yet to fit the Scion tC).[14][15]. However, as of 2010, both companies still sell models without ESC in North America.[16] General Motors had made a similar announcement for the end of 2010.[17] The NHTSA requires all passenger vehicles to be equipped with ESC by 2011 and estimates it will prevent 5,300-9,600 annual fatalities once all passenger vehicles are equipped with the system [18].
In 1995, automobile manufacturers introduced electronic stability control systems. Mercedes-Benz supplied by Bosch was the earliest with their W140 S-Class model. That same year BMW, supplied by Bosch and ITT Automotive (later Continental) and Volvo[citation needed] began offering ESC on some of their models while Toyota's own Vehicle Stability Control system (also in 2004, a preventive system called VDIM) appeared on the Crown Majesta.[11] Meanwhile others investigated and developed their own systems.
During a moose test (swerving to avoid an obstacle) which became famous in Germany as "the Elk test" the Swedish journalist Robert Collin of Teknikens Värld (World of Technology) during October 1997[12] rolled a Mercedes A-Class (without ESC) at 37 km/h. Because Mercedes-Benz promotes a reputation for safety, they recalled and retrofitted 130,000 A-Class cars with ESC. This produced a significant reduction in crashes and the number of vehicles with ESC rose. Today virtually all premium brands have made ESC standard on all vehicles, and the number of models with ESC continues to increase.[13] Ford and Toyota have announced that all their North American vehicles will be equipped with ESC standard by the end of 2009 (Toyota SUVs standard in 2004, Toyota has yet to fit the Scion tC).[14][15]. However, as of 2010, both companies still sell models without ESC in North America.[16] General Motors had made a similar announcement for the end of 2010.[17] The NHTSA requires all passenger vehicles to be equipped with ESC by 2011 and estimates it will prevent 5,300-9,600 annual fatalities once all passenger vehicles are equipped with the system [18].
Operation
During normal driving, ESC works in the background, continuously monitoring steering and vehicle direction. ESC compares the driver's intended direction (by measuring steering angle) to the vehicle's actual direction (by measuring lateral acceleration, vehicle rotation (yaw), and individual road wheel speeds).
ESC intervenes only when it detects loss of steering control, i.e. when the vehicle is not going where the driver is steering.[19] This may happen, for example, when skidding during emergency evasive swerves, understeer or oversteer during poorly judged turns on slippery roads, or hydroplaning. ESC estimates the direction of the skid, and then applies the brakes to individual wheels asymmetrically in order to create torque about the vehicle's vertical axis, opposing the skid and bringing the vehicle back in line with the driver's commanded direction. Additionally, the system may reduce engine power or operate the transmission to slow the vehicle down.
ESC can work on any surface, from dry pavement to frozen lakes.[20][21] It reacts to and corrects skidding much faster and more effectively than the typical human driver, often before the driver is even aware of any imminent loss of control.[22] In fact, this led to some concern that ESC could allow drivers to become overconfident in their vehicle's handling and/or their own driving skills. For this reason, ESC systems typically inform the driver when they intervene, so that the driver knows that the vehicle's handling limits have been approached. Most activate a dashboard indicator light and/or alert tone; some intentionally allow the vehicle's corrected course to deviate very slightly from the driver-commanded direction, even if it is possible to more precisely match it.[23]
Indeed, all ESC manufacturers emphasize that the system is not a performance enhancement nor a replacement for safe driving practices, but rather a safety technology to assist the driver in recovering from dangerous situations. ESC does not increase traction, so it does not enable faster cornering (although it can facilitate better-controlled cornering). More generally, ESC works within inherent limits of the vehicle's handling and available traction between the tires and road. A reckless maneuver can still exceed these limits, resulting in loss of control. For example, in a severe hydroplaning scenario, the wheel(s) that ESC would use to correct a skid may not even initially be in contact with the road, reducing its effectiveness.
In July 2004, on the Crown Majesta, Toyota offered a Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) system that incorporated formerly independent systems, including ESC. This worked not only after the skid was detected but also to prevent the skid from occurring in the first place. Using electric variable gear ratio steering power steering this more advanced system could also alter steering gear ratios and steering torque levels to assist the driver in evasive maneuvers.
During normal driving, ESC works in the background, continuously monitoring steering and vehicle direction. ESC compares the driver's intended direction (by measuring steering angle) to the vehicle's actual direction (by measuring lateral acceleration, vehicle rotation (yaw), and individual road wheel speeds).
ESC intervenes only when it detects loss of steering control, i.e. when the vehicle is not going where the driver is steering.[19] This may happen, for example, when skidding during emergency evasive swerves, understeer or oversteer during poorly judged turns on slippery roads, or hydroplaning. ESC estimates the direction of the skid, and then applies the brakes to individual wheels asymmetrically in order to create torque about the vehicle's vertical axis, opposing the skid and bringing the vehicle back in line with the driver's commanded direction. Additionally, the system may reduce engine power or operate the transmission to slow the vehicle down.
ESC can work on any surface, from dry pavement to frozen lakes.[20][21] It reacts to and corrects skidding much faster and more effectively than the typical human driver, often before the driver is even aware of any imminent loss of control.[22] In fact, this led to some concern that ESC could allow drivers to become overconfident in their vehicle's handling and/or their own driving skills. For this reason, ESC systems typically inform the driver when they intervene, so that the driver knows that the vehicle's handling limits have been approached. Most activate a dashboard indicator light and/or alert tone; some intentionally allow the vehicle's corrected course to deviate very slightly from the driver-commanded direction, even if it is possible to more precisely match it.[23]
Indeed, all ESC manufacturers emphasize that the system is not a performance enhancement nor a replacement for safe driving practices, but rather a safety technology to assist the driver in recovering from dangerous situations. ESC does not increase traction, so it does not enable faster cornering (although it can facilitate better-controlled cornering). More generally, ESC works within inherent limits of the vehicle's handling and available traction between the tires and road. A reckless maneuver can still exceed these limits, resulting in loss of control. For example, in a severe hydroplaning scenario, the wheel(s) that ESC would use to correct a skid may not even initially be in contact with the road, reducing its effectiveness.
In July 2004, on the Crown Majesta, Toyota offered a Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) system that incorporated formerly independent systems, including ESC. This worked not only after the skid was detected but also to prevent the skid from occurring in the first place. Using electric variable gear ratio steering power steering this more advanced system could also alter steering gear ratios and steering torque levels to assist the driver in evasive maneuvers.
Effectiveness
Numerous studies around the world confirm that ESC is highly effective in helping the driver maintain control of the car, thereby saving lives and reducing the severity of crashes.[24] In the fall of 2004 in the U.S., the National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration confirmed the international studies, releasing results of a field study in the U.S. of ESC effectiveness. The NHTSA in United States concluded that ESC reduces crashes by 35%. Additionally, Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) with stability control are involved in 67% fewer accidents than SUVs without the system. The United States Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) issued its own study in June 2006 showing that up to 10,000 fatal US crashes could be avoided annually if all vehicles were equipped with ESC[25] The IIHS study concluded that ESC reduces the likelihood of all fatal crashes by 43%, fatal single-vehicle crashes by 56%, and fatal single-vehicle rollovers by 77-80%.
ESC is described as the most important advance in auto safety by many experts.[26] including Nicole Nason,[27] Administrator of the NHTSA,[28] Jim Guest and David Champion[29] of Consumers Union [30] of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), E-Safety Aware,[31] Csaba Csere, editor of Car and Driver,[32] and Jim Gill, long time ESC proponent of Continental Automotive Systems[28] The European New Car Assessment Program (EuroNCAP) "strongly recommends" that people buy cars fitted with stability control.
The IIHS requires that a vehicle must have ESC as an available option in order for it to qualify for their Top Safety Pick award for occupant protection and accident avoidance.[33][34]
Components and design
ESC incorporates yaw rate control into the anti-lock braking system (ABS). Yaw is rotation around the vertical axis; i.e. spinning left or right. Anti-lock brakes enable ESC to brake individual wheels. Many ESC systems also incorporate a traction control system (TCS or ASR), which senses drive-wheel slip under acceleration and individually brakes the slipping wheel or wheels and/or reduces excess engine power until control is regained. However, ESC achieves a different purpose than ABS or Traction Control.[21]
The ESC system uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants (input). Other sensors indicate the actual state of the vehicle (response). The control algorithm compares driver input to vehicle response and decides, when necessary, to apply brakes and/or reduce throttle by the amounts calculated through the state space (set of equations used to model the dynamics of the vehicle).[35] The ESC controller can also receive data from and issue commands to other controllers on the vehicle such as an all wheel drive system or an active suspension system to improve vehicle stability and controllability.
The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possible defects as soon as possible. They have to be resistant to possible forms of interference (rain, holes in the road, etc.). The most important sensors are:
Steering wheel angle sensor: determines the driver's intended rotation; i.e. where the driver wants to steer. This kind of sensor is often based on AMR-elements.
Yaw rate sensor : measures the rotation rate of the car; i.e. how much the car is actually turning. The data from the yaw sensor is compared with the data from the steering wheel angle sensor to determine regulating action.
Lateral acceleration sensor: often based on the Hall effect. Measures the lateral acceleration of the vehicle.
Wheel speed sensor : measures the wheel speed.
Other sensors can include:
Longitudinal acceleration sensor: similar to the lateral acceleration sensor in design but can offer additional information about road pitch and also provide another source of vehicle acceleration and speed.
Roll rate sensor: similar to the yaw rate sensor in design but improves the fidelity of the controller's vehicle model and correct for errors when estimating vehicle behavior from the other sensors alone.
ESC uses a hydraulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct brake force. A similar modulator is used in ABS. ABS needs to reduce pressure during braking, only. ESC additionally needs to increase pressure in certain situations and an active vacuum brake booster unit may be utilized in addition to the hydraulic pump to meet these demanding pressure gradients.
The heart of the ESC system is the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). The various control techniques are embedded in it. Often, the same ECU is used for diverse systems at the same time (ABS, Traction control system, climate control, etc.). The input signals are sent through the input-circuit to the digital controller. The desired vehicle state is determined based upon the steering wheel angle, its gradient and the wheel speed. Simultaneously, the yaw sensor measures the actual state. The controller computes the needed brake or acceleration force for each wheel and directs via the driver circuits the valves of the hydraulic modulator. Via a CAN interface the ECU is connected with other systems (ABS, etc.) in order to avoid giving contradictory commands.
Many ESC systems have an "off" override switch so the driver can disable ESC, which may be desirable when badly stuck in mud or snow, or driving on a beach, or if using a smaller-sized spare tire which would interfere with the sensors. Some systems also offer an additional mode with raised thresholds so that a driver can utilize the limits of adhesion with less electronic intervention. However, ESC defaults to "On" when the ignition is re-started. Some ESC systems that lack an "off switch", such as on many recent Toyota and Lexus vehicles, can be temporarily disabled through an undocumented series of brake pedal and handbrake operations.[36] Furthermore, unplugging a wheel speed sensor is another method of disabling most ESC systems. The ESC implementation on newer Ford vehicles cannot be completely disabled even through the use of the "off switch". The ESC will automatically reactivate at highway speeds, and below that if it detects a skid with the brake pedal depressed.
Numerous studies around the world confirm that ESC is highly effective in helping the driver maintain control of the car, thereby saving lives and reducing the severity of crashes.[24] In the fall of 2004 in the U.S., the National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration confirmed the international studies, releasing results of a field study in the U.S. of ESC effectiveness. The NHTSA in United States concluded that ESC reduces crashes by 35%. Additionally, Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) with stability control are involved in 67% fewer accidents than SUVs without the system. The United States Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) issued its own study in June 2006 showing that up to 10,000 fatal US crashes could be avoided annually if all vehicles were equipped with ESC[25] The IIHS study concluded that ESC reduces the likelihood of all fatal crashes by 43%, fatal single-vehicle crashes by 56%, and fatal single-vehicle rollovers by 77-80%.
ESC is described as the most important advance in auto safety by many experts.[26] including Nicole Nason,[27] Administrator of the NHTSA,[28] Jim Guest and David Champion[29] of Consumers Union [30] of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), E-Safety Aware,[31] Csaba Csere, editor of Car and Driver,[32] and Jim Gill, long time ESC proponent of Continental Automotive Systems[28] The European New Car Assessment Program (EuroNCAP) "strongly recommends" that people buy cars fitted with stability control.
The IIHS requires that a vehicle must have ESC as an available option in order for it to qualify for their Top Safety Pick award for occupant protection and accident avoidance.[33][34]
Components and design
ESC incorporates yaw rate control into the anti-lock braking system (ABS). Yaw is rotation around the vertical axis; i.e. spinning left or right. Anti-lock brakes enable ESC to brake individual wheels. Many ESC systems also incorporate a traction control system (TCS or ASR), which senses drive-wheel slip under acceleration and individually brakes the slipping wheel or wheels and/or reduces excess engine power until control is regained. However, ESC achieves a different purpose than ABS or Traction Control.[21]
The ESC system uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants (input). Other sensors indicate the actual state of the vehicle (response). The control algorithm compares driver input to vehicle response and decides, when necessary, to apply brakes and/or reduce throttle by the amounts calculated through the state space (set of equations used to model the dynamics of the vehicle).[35] The ESC controller can also receive data from and issue commands to other controllers on the vehicle such as an all wheel drive system or an active suspension system to improve vehicle stability and controllability.
The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possible defects as soon as possible. They have to be resistant to possible forms of interference (rain, holes in the road, etc.). The most important sensors are:
Steering wheel angle sensor: determines the driver's intended rotation; i.e. where the driver wants to steer. This kind of sensor is often based on AMR-elements.
Yaw rate sensor : measures the rotation rate of the car; i.e. how much the car is actually turning. The data from the yaw sensor is compared with the data from the steering wheel angle sensor to determine regulating action.
Lateral acceleration sensor: often based on the Hall effect. Measures the lateral acceleration of the vehicle.
Wheel speed sensor : measures the wheel speed.
Other sensors can include:
Longitudinal acceleration sensor: similar to the lateral acceleration sensor in design but can offer additional information about road pitch and also provide another source of vehicle acceleration and speed.
Roll rate sensor: similar to the yaw rate sensor in design but improves the fidelity of the controller's vehicle model and correct for errors when estimating vehicle behavior from the other sensors alone.
ESC uses a hydraulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct brake force. A similar modulator is used in ABS. ABS needs to reduce pressure during braking, only. ESC additionally needs to increase pressure in certain situations and an active vacuum brake booster unit may be utilized in addition to the hydraulic pump to meet these demanding pressure gradients.
The heart of the ESC system is the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). The various control techniques are embedded in it. Often, the same ECU is used for diverse systems at the same time (ABS, Traction control system, climate control, etc.). The input signals are sent through the input-circuit to the digital controller. The desired vehicle state is determined based upon the steering wheel angle, its gradient and the wheel speed. Simultaneously, the yaw sensor measures the actual state. The controller computes the needed brake or acceleration force for each wheel and directs via the driver circuits the valves of the hydraulic modulator. Via a CAN interface the ECU is connected with other systems (ABS, etc.) in order to avoid giving contradictory commands.
Many ESC systems have an "off" override switch so the driver can disable ESC, which may be desirable when badly stuck in mud or snow, or driving on a beach, or if using a smaller-sized spare tire which would interfere with the sensors. Some systems also offer an additional mode with raised thresholds so that a driver can utilize the limits of adhesion with less electronic intervention. However, ESC defaults to "On" when the ignition is re-started. Some ESC systems that lack an "off switch", such as on many recent Toyota and Lexus vehicles, can be temporarily disabled through an undocumented series of brake pedal and handbrake operations.[36] Furthermore, unplugging a wheel speed sensor is another method of disabling most ESC systems. The ESC implementation on newer Ford vehicles cannot be completely disabled even through the use of the "off switch". The ESC will automatically reactivate at highway speeds, and below that if it detects a skid with the brake pedal depressed.
Availability and cost
ESC is built on top of an anti-lock brake (ABS) system, and all ESC-equipped vehicles are fitted with traction control. The ESC components include a yaw rate sensor, a lateral acceleration sensor, a steering wheel sensor, and an upgraded integrated control unit. According to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration research, ABS in 2005 cost an estimated US$368; ESC cost a further US$111. The retail price of ESC varies; as a stand-alone option it retails for as little as $250 USD[37]. However, ESC is rarely offered as a sole option, and is generally not available for aftermarket installation. Instead, it is frequently bundled it with other features or more expensive trims, so the cost of a package that includes ESC could be several thousand dollars. Nonetheless, ESC is considered highly cost-effective[38] and it might pay for itself in reduced insurance premiums.[39] When new federal regulations requiring a safety tool called electronic stability control kick in during 2012, all cars will employ it. (cite: http://redtape.msnbc.com/2010/03/toyota-woes-raise-ghost-in-the-machine-fears.html)
Availability of ESC in passenger vehicles varies between manufacturers and countries. In 2007, ESC was available in roughly 50% of new North American models compared to about 75% in Sweden. However, consumer awareness affects buying patterns so that roughly 45% of vehicles sold in North America and the UK are purchased with ESC,[40] contrasting with 78-96% in other European countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. While few vehicles had ESC prior to 2004, increased awareness will increase the number of vehicles with ESC on the used car market.
ESC is available on cars, SUVs and pickup trucks from all major auto makers. Luxury cars, sports cars, SUVs, and crossovers are usually equipped with ESC. Midsize cars are also gradually catching on, though the 2008 model years of the, Nissan Altima and Ford Fusion only offered ESC on their V6 engine-equipped cars. While ESC includes traction control, there are vehicles such as the 2008 Chevrolet Malibu LS and 2008 Mazda6 that have traction control but not ESC. ESC is rare among subcompact cars as of 2008. The 2009 Toyota Corolla in the United States (but not Canada) has stability control as a $250 option on all trims below that of the XRS which has it as standard. [37] In Canada, for the 2010 Mazda3, ESC is as an option on the midrange GS trim as part of the moonroof package, and is standard on the top-of-the-line GT version[41]. The 2009 Ford Focus has ESC as an option for the S and SE models, and standard on the SEL and SES models[42]
ESC is also available on some motor homes. Elaborate ESC and ESP systems (including Roll Stability Control (RSC)[43]) are available for many commercial vehicles, [44] including transport trucks, trailers, and buses from manufacturers such as Bendix Corporation,[45] WABCO [46] Daimler, Scania AB,[47] and Prevost[48]
The ChooseESC! campaign, run by the EU's eSafetyAware! project, provides a global perspective on ESC. One ChooseESC! publication shows the availability of ESC in EU member countries.
In the US, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) website[49] shows availability of ESC in individual US models and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA website)[13] lists US models with ESC.
In Australia, the National Roads and Motorists' Association NRMA shows the availability of ESC in Australian models.[50]
ESC is built on top of an anti-lock brake (ABS) system, and all ESC-equipped vehicles are fitted with traction control. The ESC components include a yaw rate sensor, a lateral acceleration sensor, a steering wheel sensor, and an upgraded integrated control unit. According to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration research, ABS in 2005 cost an estimated US$368; ESC cost a further US$111. The retail price of ESC varies; as a stand-alone option it retails for as little as $250 USD[37]. However, ESC is rarely offered as a sole option, and is generally not available for aftermarket installation. Instead, it is frequently bundled it with other features or more expensive trims, so the cost of a package that includes ESC could be several thousand dollars. Nonetheless, ESC is considered highly cost-effective[38] and it might pay for itself in reduced insurance premiums.[39] When new federal regulations requiring a safety tool called electronic stability control kick in during 2012, all cars will employ it. (cite: http://redtape.msnbc.com/2010/03/toyota-woes-raise-ghost-in-the-machine-fears.html)
Availability of ESC in passenger vehicles varies between manufacturers and countries. In 2007, ESC was available in roughly 50% of new North American models compared to about 75% in Sweden. However, consumer awareness affects buying patterns so that roughly 45% of vehicles sold in North America and the UK are purchased with ESC,[40] contrasting with 78-96% in other European countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. While few vehicles had ESC prior to 2004, increased awareness will increase the number of vehicles with ESC on the used car market.
ESC is available on cars, SUVs and pickup trucks from all major auto makers. Luxury cars, sports cars, SUVs, and crossovers are usually equipped with ESC. Midsize cars are also gradually catching on, though the 2008 model years of the, Nissan Altima and Ford Fusion only offered ESC on their V6 engine-equipped cars. While ESC includes traction control, there are vehicles such as the 2008 Chevrolet Malibu LS and 2008 Mazda6 that have traction control but not ESC. ESC is rare among subcompact cars as of 2008. The 2009 Toyota Corolla in the United States (but not Canada) has stability control as a $250 option on all trims below that of the XRS which has it as standard. [37] In Canada, for the 2010 Mazda3, ESC is as an option on the midrange GS trim as part of the moonroof package, and is standard on the top-of-the-line GT version[41]. The 2009 Ford Focus has ESC as an option for the S and SE models, and standard on the SEL and SES models[42]
ESC is also available on some motor homes. Elaborate ESC and ESP systems (including Roll Stability Control (RSC)[43]) are available for many commercial vehicles, [44] including transport trucks, trailers, and buses from manufacturers such as Bendix Corporation,[45] WABCO [46] Daimler, Scania AB,[47] and Prevost[48]
The ChooseESC! campaign, run by the EU's eSafetyAware! project, provides a global perspective on ESC. One ChooseESC! publication shows the availability of ESC in EU member countries.
In the US, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) website[49] shows availability of ESC in individual US models and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA website)[13] lists US models with ESC.
In Australia, the National Roads and Motorists' Association NRMA shows the availability of ESC in Australian models.[50]
Future
The market for ESC is growing quickly, especially in European countries such as Sweden, Denmark, and Germany. For example, in 2003 in Sweden the purchase rate on new cars with ESC was 15%. The Swedish road safety administration issued a strong ESC recommendation and in September 2004, 16 months later, the purchase rate was 58%. A stronger ESC recommendation was then given and in December 2004, the purchase rate on new cars had reached 69%[51] and by 2008 it had grown to 96%. ESC advocates around the world are promoting increased ESC use through legislation and public awareness campaigns and by 2012, most new vehicles should be equipped with ESC.
Just as ESC is founded on the Anti-lock braking system (ABS), ESC is the foundation for new advances such as Roll Stability Control (RSC) [52][53] that works in the vertical plane much like ESC works in the horizontal plane. When RSC detects impending rollover (usually on transport trucks[46] or SUVs[54]), RSC applies brakes, reduces throttle, induces understeer, and/or slows down the vehicle.
The computing power of ESC facilitates the networking of active and passive safety systems, addressing other causes of crashes. For example, sensors may detect when a vehicle is following too closely and slow down the vehicle, straighten up seat backs, and tighten seat belts, avoiding and/or preparing for a crash.
The market for ESC is growing quickly, especially in European countries such as Sweden, Denmark, and Germany. For example, in 2003 in Sweden the purchase rate on new cars with ESC was 15%. The Swedish road safety administration issued a strong ESC recommendation and in September 2004, 16 months later, the purchase rate was 58%. A stronger ESC recommendation was then given and in December 2004, the purchase rate on new cars had reached 69%[51] and by 2008 it had grown to 96%. ESC advocates around the world are promoting increased ESC use through legislation and public awareness campaigns and by 2012, most new vehicles should be equipped with ESC.
Just as ESC is founded on the Anti-lock braking system (ABS), ESC is the foundation for new advances such as Roll Stability Control (RSC) [52][53] that works in the vertical plane much like ESC works in the horizontal plane. When RSC detects impending rollover (usually on transport trucks[46] or SUVs[54]), RSC applies brakes, reduces throttle, induces understeer, and/or slows down the vehicle.
The computing power of ESC facilitates the networking of active and passive safety systems, addressing other causes of crashes. For example, sensors may detect when a vehicle is following too closely and slow down the vehicle, straighten up seat backs, and tighten seat belts, avoiding and/or preparing for a crash.
Regulation
While Sweden used public awareness campaigns to promote ESC use,[55] others implemented or proposed legislation.
The Province of Quebec was the first jurisdiction to implement an ESC law, making it compulsory for carriers of dangerous goods (without data recorders) in 2005 [56].
The United States was next, requiring ESC for all passenger vehicles under 10,000 pounds (4536 kg), phasing in the regulation starting with 55% of 2009 models (effective 1 September 2008), 75% of 2010 models, 95% of 2011 models, and all 2012 models.[13]
Canada[57][58] will require all new passenger vehicles to have ESC from 1 September 2011.[59]
In Australia, following the lead of the State of Victoria, the Australian Federal Government announced on 23 June 2009 that ESC would be compulsory from 1 November 2011 for all new passenger vehicles sold in Australia, and for all new vehicles from November 2013.[60]
The European Parliament has also called for the accelerated introduction of ESC.[61] The European Commission has confirmed a proposal for the mandatory introduction of ESC on all new cars and commercial vehicle models sold in the EU from 2012, with all new cars being equipped by 2014.[62]
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has passed a Global Technical Regulation to harmonize ESC standards.[63]
While Sweden used public awareness campaigns to promote ESC use,[55] others implemented or proposed legislation.
The Province of Quebec was the first jurisdiction to implement an ESC law, making it compulsory for carriers of dangerous goods (without data recorders) in 2005 [56].
The United States was next, requiring ESC for all passenger vehicles under 10,000 pounds (4536 kg), phasing in the regulation starting with 55% of 2009 models (effective 1 September 2008), 75% of 2010 models, 95% of 2011 models, and all 2012 models.[13]
Canada[57][58] will require all new passenger vehicles to have ESC from 1 September 2011.[59]
In Australia, following the lead of the State of Victoria, the Australian Federal Government announced on 23 June 2009 that ESC would be compulsory from 1 November 2011 for all new passenger vehicles sold in Australia, and for all new vehicles from November 2013.[60]
The European Parliament has also called for the accelerated introduction of ESC.[61] The European Commission has confirmed a proposal for the mandatory introduction of ESC on all new cars and commercial vehicle models sold in the EU from 2012, with all new cars being equipped by 2014.[62]
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has passed a Global Technical Regulation to harmonize ESC standards.[63]
Product names
This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)
Electronic stability control (ESC) is the generic term recognised by the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA), the North American Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, and other worldwide authorities. However, vehicle manufacturers may use a variety of different trade names for ESC:
Acura: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
Alfa Romeo: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Audi: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Bentley: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
BMW: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction Control)
Bugatti: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Buick: StabiliTrak
Cadillac: StabiliTrak & Active Front Steering (AFS)
Chery Automobile: Electronic Stability Program
Chevrolet: StabiliTrak; Active Handling (Corvette only)
Chrysler: Electronic Stability Program(ESP)
Citroën: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Dodge: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Daimler: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Fiat: Electronic Stability Program (ESP) and Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Ferrari: Controllo Stabilità (CST)
Ford: AdvanceTrac with Roll Stability Control (RSC) and Interactive Vehicle Dynamics (IVD) and Electronic Stability Program (ESP); Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (Australia only)
General Motors: StabiliTrak
Honda: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
Holden: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Hyundai: Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Electronic Stability Control (ESC), and Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
Infiniti: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Jaguar: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
Jeep: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Kia: Electronic Stability Control (ESC)' and 'Electronic Stability Program (ESP)'
Lamborghini: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Land Rover: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
Lexus: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) with Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
Lincoln: AdvanceTrac
Maserati: Maserati Stability Program (MSP)
Mazda: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction Control)
Mercedes-Benz (co-inventor): Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Mercury: AdvanceTrac
MINI: Dynamic Stability Control
Mitsubishi: Active Skid and Traction Control MULTIMODE and Active Stability Control (ASC)
Nissan: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Oldsmobile: Precision Control System (PCS)
Opel: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Peugeot: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Pontiac: StabiliTrak
Porsche: Porsche Stability Management (PSM)
Proton: Electronic Stability Program
Renault: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Rover Group: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
Saab: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Saturn: StabiliTrak
Scania: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)[64]
SEAT: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Škoda: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Smart: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Subaru: Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
Suzuki: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Toyota: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) with Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
Vauxhall: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Volvo: Dynamic Stability and Traction Control (DSTC)
Volkswagen: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)
Electronic stability control (ESC) is the generic term recognised by the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA), the North American Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, and other worldwide authorities. However, vehicle manufacturers may use a variety of different trade names for ESC:
Acura: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
Alfa Romeo: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Audi: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Bentley: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
BMW: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction Control)
Bugatti: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Buick: StabiliTrak
Cadillac: StabiliTrak & Active Front Steering (AFS)
Chery Automobile: Electronic Stability Program
Chevrolet: StabiliTrak; Active Handling (Corvette only)
Chrysler: Electronic Stability Program(ESP)
Citroën: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Dodge: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Daimler: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Fiat: Electronic Stability Program (ESP) and Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Ferrari: Controllo Stabilità (CST)
Ford: AdvanceTrac with Roll Stability Control (RSC) and Interactive Vehicle Dynamics (IVD) and Electronic Stability Program (ESP); Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (Australia only)
General Motors: StabiliTrak
Honda: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
Holden: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Hyundai: Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Electronic Stability Control (ESC), and Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
Infiniti: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Jaguar: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
Jeep: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Kia: Electronic Stability Control (ESC)' and 'Electronic Stability Program (ESP)'
Lamborghini: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Land Rover: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
Lexus: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) with Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
Lincoln: AdvanceTrac
Maserati: Maserati Stability Program (MSP)
Mazda: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction Control)
Mercedes-Benz (co-inventor): Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Mercury: AdvanceTrac
MINI: Dynamic Stability Control
Mitsubishi: Active Skid and Traction Control MULTIMODE and Active Stability Control (ASC)
Nissan: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
Oldsmobile: Precision Control System (PCS)
Opel: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Peugeot: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Pontiac: StabiliTrak
Porsche: Porsche Stability Management (PSM)
Proton: Electronic Stability Program
Renault: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Rover Group: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
Saab: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Saturn: StabiliTrak
Scania: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)[64]
SEAT: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Škoda: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Smart: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Subaru: Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
Suzuki: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Toyota: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) with Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
Vauxhall: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Volvo: Dynamic Stability and Traction Control (DSTC)
Volkswagen: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
System manufacturers
ESC system manufacturers include:
Robert Bosch GmbH, which product the ESP system
Aisin Advics[65]
Bendix Corporation
Continental Automotive Systems
Delphi
Hitachi
ITT Automotive, since 1998 part of Continental AG
Mando Corporation
Nissin Kogyo
Teves, now part of Continental AG
TRW
WABCO
ESC system manufacturers include:
Robert Bosch GmbH, which product the ESP system
Aisin Advics[65]
Bendix Corporation
Continental Automotive Systems
Delphi
Hitachi
ITT Automotive, since 1998 part of Continental AG
Mando Corporation
Nissin Kogyo
Teves, now part of Continental AG
TRW
WABCO
References
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^ a b New Toyota Corolla solid but not very exciting
^ Cost-Benefit-Analysis of the Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
^ "Farmers Insurance Introduces Auto Insurance Electronic Stability Control (ESC) Discount In Wisconsin". WisBusiness. WisPolitics. 2008-01-29. http://www.wisbusiness.com/index.iml?Article=116777. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
^ Electronic Stability Control
^ 2010 Mazda 3 Equipment
^ 2009 Ford Focus: zeroing in on comfort rather than sportiness
^ Roll Stability Control system (RSC)
^ BENDIX ELECTRONIC STABILITY EXPERIENCES 800 PERCENT GROWTH
^ Bendix® ESP®: More than roll-only stability, FULL Stability…
^ a b Meritor WABCO - Products - System Saver Air Dryers
^ Electronic Stability Program
^ Prevost – Passenger coaches and bus shells manufacturer
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^ Jianbo Lu, Dave Messih, and Albert Salib, "Roll Rate Based Stability Control - The Roll Stability Control System," Proceedings of the 20th Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference, 2007
^ Jianbo Lu, Dave Messih, Albert Salib, and Dave Harmison, "An Enhancement to an Electronic Stability Control System to Include a Rollover Control Function," SAE Transactions, Vol. 116, pp. 303-313, 2007
^ CanadianDriver: Auto Tech - Volvo's Roll Stability Control
^ Anders Lie, Claes Tingvall, Maria Krafft, and Anders Kullgren, "The Effectiveness of ESC (Electronic Stability Control) in Reducing Real Life Crashes and Injuries," Proceedings of the 19th Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference, 2005
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^ Electronic Stability Control
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^ "SCANIA - Electronic Stability Program (ESP)". Scania (Great Britain) Limited. Scania.co.uk. http://www.scania.co.uk/trucks/main-components/chassis/safety-systems/esp/. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
^ ADVICS ESC Modulator
^ "Electronic stability control could prevent nearly one-third of all fatal crashes and reduce rollover risk by as much as 80%; effect is found on single- and multiple-vehicle crashes," IIHS News release, 2006
^ Jennifer N. Dang, "PRELIMINARY RESULTS ANALYZING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL(ESC) SYSTEMS," DOT HS 809 790, 2004
^ "Mitsubishi Motors history 1981–1990", Mitsubishi Motors South Africa website
^ "Control Technology", Mitsubishi Motors South Africa website
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^ ADVICS ESC Modulator
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